Specifications such as gain error, offset error, and differential nonlinearity help define an analog-to-digital converter’s performance. In part 1 of this series, we discussed an ideal analog-to-digital converter (ADC), noting that it would have infinite resolution and bandwidth. Then we looked at the real world of practical inverters and how their resolution, expressed in a […]
FAQ
How op amps work and why you should use them: part 3
Operational amplifiers (op amps) are almost the perfect amplifier. As long as you keep a few important details in mind, their imperfections will seem invisible. In part 1, Equations 2 and 3 used the term AV for the voltage gain of the simple noninverting amplifier shown in Figure 1. The equations use α for the […]
What are the best practices for PCB-to-harness transitions?
Transition points between PCB traces and wire harnesses impact signal integrity, system-level reliability, and manufacturability. Improperly calibrated transition points can introduce impedance discontinuities, signal loss, or thermal stress. Mechanical strain and layout constraints also restrict routing flexibility, complicate manufacturing, and may contribute to long-term system failures. This article outlines best practices for optimizing PCB-to-harness transition […]
Streamlining PCB-to-wire harness design integration with EDA tools
Automotive wiring harnesses consolidate multiple wires and cables into a single organized system, transmitting power and signals between electronic control units (ECUs). These harnesses connect PCB-mounted electronics to the broader electrical system, supporting advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS), powertrain control, airbags, infotainment, telematics, and body electronics. This article examines the PCB-to-wire harness design flow and highlights key integration […]
How op amps work and why you should use them: part 2
Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are almost the perfect amplifiers. As long as you keep a few important details in mind, they will seem perfect. In part 1, I gave a simplified explanation of how an op amp, functioning as a servo amplifier, amplifies a small signal by comparing it to the attenuated signal from the amplifier’s […]
How to select automotive PCB-to-wire harness connectors
An automotive wiring harness routes electrical power and signals between various vehicle components. Within this system, PCB-to-wire harness interfaces use connectors to link discrete wiring bundles with board-mounted electronics. This article explores the fundamentals of PCB-to-wire harness interfaces and outlines connector electrical performance requirements across vehicle platforms. It also highlights the importance of mechanical stability, […]
How does a basic digital-to-analog converter (DAC) perform signal conversion?
A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) transforms digital binary data into an analog signal using weighted contributions from each bit. In this FAQ, we discuss the two most commonly known ways of DAC conversion: weighted resistor DAC and R-2R ladder DAC. Before getting into the conversion types, let us understand the basic steps involved in a DAC […]
How op amps work and why you should use them: part 1
Operational amplifiers (op amps) may initially look intimidating, but with a bit of study, they can be easily understood and used in a variety of applications. Op amps can be thought of as a perfect amplifier in a black box. When we create a design using an op amp, we initially presume that the device […]
RF directional couplers shrink in size, not performance: part 2
This essential measurement accessory for microwaves has morphed from waveguides down to tiny surface-mount components. Part 1 looks at the need for and the basic principles of directional couplers. This part explores some of the construction techniques and implementations. The basic arrangement of a single directional coupler is shown in Figure 1. There are two […]
FAQ on RF directional couplers: part 1
This essential measurement accessory for microwaves has morphed from waveguides down to tiny surface-mount components. Engineers who work with circuits typically use a multimeter as their primary test and measurement tool to check voltages and currents. They may also need to assess power with a separate instrument, but this is often secondary. However, voltage and […]
