Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are almost the perfect amplifiers. As long as you keep a few important details in mind, they will seem perfect. In part 1, I gave a simplified explanation of how an op amp, functioning as a servo amplifier, amplifies a small signal by comparing it to the attenuated signal from the amplifier’s […]
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How to select automotive PCB-to-wire harness connectors
An automotive wiring harness routes electrical power and signals between various vehicle components. Within this system, PCB-to-wire harness interfaces use connectors to link discrete wiring bundles with board-mounted electronics. This article explores the fundamentals of PCB-to-wire harness interfaces and outlines connector electrical performance requirements across vehicle platforms. It also highlights the importance of mechanical stability, […]
How does a basic digital-to-analog converter (DAC) perform signal conversion?
A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) transforms digital binary data into an analog signal using weighted contributions from each bit. In this FAQ, we discuss the two most commonly known ways of DAC conversion: weighted resistor DAC and R-2R ladder DAC. Before getting into the conversion types, let us understand the basic steps involved in a DAC […]
How op amps work and why you should use them: part 1
Operational amplifiers (op amps) may initially look intimidating, but with a bit of study, they can be easily understood and used in a variety of applications. Op amps can be thought of as a perfect amplifier in a black box. When we create a design using an op amp, we initially presume that the device […]
RF directional couplers shrink in size, not performance: part 2
This essential measurement accessory for microwaves has morphed from waveguides down to tiny surface-mount components. Part 1 looks at the need for and the basic principles of directional couplers. This part explores some of the construction techniques and implementations. The basic arrangement of a single directional coupler is shown in Figure 1. There are two […]
FAQ on RF directional couplers: part 1
This essential measurement accessory for microwaves has morphed from waveguides down to tiny surface-mount components. Engineers who work with circuits typically use a multimeter as their primary test and measurement tool to check voltages and currents. They may also need to assess power with a separate instrument, but this is often secondary. However, voltage and […]
Understanding ADC specs and architectures: part 1
Analog-to-digital converters are the heart of most test equipment, setting the stage for the digital processing of analog signals. Several posts over the past year or so have involved digital signal processing. For example, we have covered the fast Fourier transform (FFT), the inverse FFT, and discrete convolution. To perform these operations on real-world signals, […]
Design a circuit for ultra-low power sensor applications
Sensors monitoring mechanical and biological systems must often scavenge power from the thing being sensed. The oscillator circuits shown here let you operate those sensors. Sensor circuits that connect to thermocouples, electromagnetic mechanical-to-electrical transducers, and piezoelectric mechanical-to-electrical transducers often use oscillators powered through energy harvesting from solar cells and other sources. These power sources can […]
Do I need an analog switch or multiplexer?
If an application calls for a device with multiple inputs and a single output, it needs a multiplexer. A switch can be used if the need is for one input per output. Analog switches and multiplexers are used in a wide array of systems, including industrial, medical, military/aerospace, consumer, 5G infrastructure, and more. This article […]
What are the different taxonomies of RFID tags, and how do they differ? part 2
The second part of this FAQ focuses on how RFID tags are categorized based on frequency bands and the presence/absence of microchips in RFID tags. While the classification based on frequency is well known, it helps practicing engineers to know about chipless RFID tags. Types of RFID Tags based on frequency bands Categorizing RFID tags […]
