A Phase Lock Loop (PLL) is a negative feedback control system designed to synchronize an oscillator’s output phase and frequency with a reference signal. PLLs are standard components in applications requiring frequency synthesis, clock recovery, and skew cancellation. To analyze a PLL effectively, engineers evaluate the system in the complex frequency domain (Laplace transform) and […]
FAQ
How to spot and fix the hidden modeling gaps in analog simulation
Analog and mixed-signal designers frequently balance simulation speed with physical accuracy. To meet project timelines, engineering teams often use compact models, averaged behaviors, and linearized solvers. While these models serve as useful approximations, they can introduce specific limitations. This technical FAQ examines three modeling gaps identified in engineering literature and outlines algorithmic methods to address […]
AI’s demand for faster, more reliable IC testing
Artificial intelligence (AI) models are being applied to almost everything, from helping people write emails to microcontrollers understanding the meaning of IoT sensor data at the edge of the network. This is creating massive demand for AI computing resources, particularly CPUs, GPUs, and xPUs used in data centers to train and run large language models. […]
Avoid ground loops in mixed-signal circuits, part 2
Picking up where we left off in Part 1, we need to explore some methods to mitigate problems caused by unpredictable ground currents. Let’s start with some simplification, although we may need to first complicate things to then simplify them. First, let’s arrange a massive ground plane around the analog circuitry on the PC board. […]
Avoid ground loops in mixed-signal circuits part 1
Ground loops can degrade circuit performance and ruin your day. Follow these tips to prevent them from occurring in circuits that use analog and digital components. A typical mixed-signal system — a system comprised of digital logic and analog circuitry — uses multiple power supplies. Typical voltages include +5 VDC, +3.3 VDC, and/or +1.8 VDC […]
Feedback topologies and architecture explained
Feedback refers to a core concept in circuit design and control theory, used to stabilize amplifiers and control system behavior. This article outlines the fundamental architecture of feedback, classifies standard topologies, and examines a practical hardware implementation as a case study. What is the fundamental architecture of a feedback system? A feedback system consists of […]
Is your power supply noise an analog issue?
Mixed-signal electronic systems combine analog circuitry with high-speed digital logic, potentially allowing power rail disturbances to couple into sensitive analog measurements. Common anomalies span analog-to-digital (ADC) output spurs, sensor reading drift, and timing circuit jitter. To resolve these issues, engineers must determine whether the disturbance originates in the signal path or from noise coupled through […]
Supercapacitors explained
Supercapacitors are a special type of electrochemical energy storage device noted for their ability to deliver sudden bursts of energy. Batteries typically provide the bulk energy required for sustained operation, whereas dielectric capacitors offer the rapid discharge rates necessary for filtering and pulse power. In such a scenario, supercapacitors address the gap between these two […]
Nomographs: once ubiquitous, now mostly gone…but holdouts remain
This classic graphical tool is now rarely used, but there is one application where it still reigns. Back in the “BC” era (before calculators/computers), calculations associated with basic engineering situations were hard to do, especially if they involved multiple steps, variables, or non-linear factors. Basic calculations involved commonly needed functions such as the volume of […]
What are attention mechanisms, and how do they work in speech and audio processing?
Attention mechanisms are very useful innovations in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) for processing sequential data, especially in speech and audio applications. This FAQ talks about how attention mechanisms work at their core, how they are used in automatic speech recognition systems, and how transformer architectures can handle advanced audio processing. What are the […]
