FAQ

Integrating absolute encoders – An overview of SPI, RS-485, and SSI protocols

December 4, 2019 By Aimee Kalnoskas

Opportunities for electrically-propelled autonomous mobility and advanced automation continue to multiply in the quest for greater industrial productivity, smarter living, and increased energy efficiency. Encoders can play a large part in these applications as motors require precisely tracked position and motion. However, with multiple encoder types and communication protocols on the market, what are the […]

Vacuum tubes we still (have to) use: The traveling wave tube, Part 1

November 19, 2019 By Bill Schweber

The previous parts of this article explored the photomultiplier tube (Part 1 and Part 2), which is based on a simple, fairly clear physics principle, although building a high-performance PMT is an art and requires various skills, of course. This part looks at a microwave/mm-wave amplifier called the traveling wave tube (TWT – often pronounced […]

Vacuum tubes we still (have to) use: The traveling wave tube, Part 2

November 19, 2019 By Aimee Kalnoskas

We live in a world of solid-state active devices that have made most vacuum tubes obsolete, but a few types remain as they are still indispensable. The previous part of this article introduced the traveling wave tube and its basic operation, along with some attributes. This part delves into some related issues. Q: What’s the […]

Vacuum tubes we still (have to) use: The photomultiplier tube, Part 2

November 18, 2019 By Bill Schweber

We live in a world of solid-state active devices that have made most vacuum tubes obsolete, but a few types remain as they are still indispensable. Part 1 of this article explained the basics of the photomultiplier tube. This part looks into other PMT characteristics. Q: Are there solid-state functional equivalents to the PMT? A: […]

Vacuum tubes we still (have to) use: The photomultiplier tube, Part 1

November 18, 2019 By Aimee Kalnoskas

Maybe we can’t live with them, but we can’t live without them, at least not yet: the photomultiplier tube and the traveling wave tube are two vacuum electron-tube devices that are still viable and needed in our solid-state world.) It’s widely accepted conventional wisdom that almost “everything” has gone solid state and that vacuum tubes […]

What are the applications and measurements of S-parameters? (Part 2)

October 31, 2019 By Bill Schweber

Part 1 of this FAQ was a basic introduction to the context and concept of s-parameters. Part 2 looks at their measurement and application and relationship to the time domain. Q: How do you actually measure s-parameters? A: In general, except for approximate measurements, you cannot use a spectrum analyzer alone for this frequency-domain test. […]

What are the functions and principles of S-parameters (Part 1)?

October 28, 2019 By Bill Schweber

As design frequencies now routinely go into the hundreds of MHz and tens of GHz range, conventional voltage and current measurements are not useful, but scattering (s) parameters can fully characterize the RF component or path performance. For engineers with experience focused from DC to several hundred megahertz, it is usually sufficient to characterize components […]

Fluxgate compasses, Part 2 – Issues and enhancements

October 21, 2019 By Bill Schweber

Part 1 of this FAQ examined the underlying context of fluxgate compasses and navigation, as well as the basic principles of the fluxgate design. This part looks at additional fluxgate-compass issues and advances in their implementation. The fluxgate compass is fairly simple in principle. However, as with all things related to magnetism in general and […]

Fluxgate Compasses, Part 1 – Context and principles

October 20, 2019 By Bill Schweber

Despite the availability of GPS and inertial measurement units, the compass in an electronic fluxgate implementation is still a viable and needed navigational tool. The classic magnetic-needle compass is not getting much respect or attention these days. Between the Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) system, the compass – whether it […]

Printed Circuit Boards, Part 4: Beyond FR-4

September 30, 2019 By Bill Schweber

Part 4 concludes this FAQ with some fabrication issues and at substrates with performance which is multi-GHz-compatible and goes beyond that available using FR-4 material. Q: What’s the set-up situation for PC board fabrication? A: The production-level fabrication process is optimized for runs of tens, hundreds, and thousands of boards, as there is a set-up […]